Feminism in Dark Romanticism

The subgenre within the Romanticism genre, Dark Romanticism, which is characterized by disturbing and horrific themes like those found in gothic literature, evolved significantly over the course of the late 18th and early 19th century. Within this genre, feminist prose appeared, confronting traditional gender roles, and disrupting patriarchal norms. When comparing the work of the Romantic writer Samuel Coleridge’s poem “Christabel” to the works of female Romantic writers such as Sarah Wilkinson’s The Convent of St. Ursula, Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley’s Frankenstein, and Mary Wollstonecraft’s A Vindication of the Rights of Women, there is an obvious progression in the portrayal of women and their agency. The emergence of feminist prose can be seen through the works of these female dark romantic writers, whose examination of female autonomy and the defiance to antiquated gender roles differs from the themes relating to gender that are present in Coleridge’s poem “Christabel”, thus challenging the patriarchy and acknowledging the need for female empowerment in literature. This advancement signals the expanding influence and recognition of feminist ideals in literature and society in the Romantic era, making the feminist prose a fundamental element of the dark romanticism genre.

Coleridge’s poem “Christabel” is rife with Gothic elements of terror and suspense, but it also frequently displays overt and covert examples of sexism. The poem, published in 1798, echoes the collective norms and expectations of the time, where women were perceived as second-class citizens to men and were expected to conform to firm gender roles. Coleridge’s portrayal of the female characters, Christabel and Geraldine, as well as the male characters the Baron and Lord Roland, stresses the frequency of chauvinism in the poem. The first example of sexism can be seen in the representation of Christabel. Despite being the titular character, Christabel’s agency and autonomy are relentlessly diluted by the male characters in the poem. She is described as “a lovely lady” with “eyes so blue” and “most beautiful”, which reinforces the ridiculous idea of a woman’s worth being limited to her appearance. Christabel, “whom her father loves so well” (line 24), is also depicted as being dependent on men for protection and guidance. As the narration plays out, the reader is supposed to infer that she is unable to save herself from the mysterious and seductive Geraldine. Coleridge’s representation of Christabel as a helpless woman emphasizes the contrived notion that women are inferior to men and need to be kept plus sheltered by them. Likewise, Coleridge’s use of language when describing Christabel is indicatory of the sexist views of the time. Throughout the poem, Christabel’s emotions and actions are continuously explained as weak, perpetuating the perception that women are lacking in strength and courage without the ability to properly reason. Another instance of sexism in “Christabel” can be seen in the character of Geraldine. She is portrayed as a seducer and an personification of evil. Her sexuality is wielded as a weapon to manipulate and control Christabel as well as the male characters, further emphasizing the idea that women who embrace their sexuality are devilish. Not to mention the heavy lesbian themes, which would have been viewed as a sin in this period. As Grossberg explains in “Making Christabel: Sexual Transgression and Its Implications in Coleridge’s “Christabel”, “Privileging the demonic over the lesbian removes Geraldine (and her relationship with Christabel) from the psychological and social realm in which a lesbian act has any implications as a lesbian act” (149). The poem in its entirety can be viewed as a warning shot from the patriarchy as to what happens when a woman owns her sexuality. This interpretation of women as being inherently evil and corrupt reflects the societal fear and caution of female sexuality during the time. Coleridge’s “Christabel” is a prime example of how sexism was embedded in the literature and society of the 18th century. The rendering of women as weak, meek, and reliant on men reflects the general thoughts about women during the time and where the patriarchy wanted women to remain. It is important to acknowledge the chauvinistic elements in the poem, as it serves as a reflection of the societal norms and expectations of its time, as well as a reminder of the progress, however slow, that has been achieved towards gender equality.

Mary Wollstonecraft’s “Vindication of the Rights of Women” was a landmark work of its time, reasoning for the equality and education of women in a patriarchal society. Published in 1792, this book had a substantial influence on female romantic and gothic writers of the 18th and 19th centuries. In this section of this essay, we will explore the influence of Wollstonecraft’s ideas and writings on the literary landscape for women writers during this period. One of the main routes in which Wollstonecraft’s “Vindication” influenced female romantic and gothic writers was in its encouragement for women’s education. Wollstonecraft argued that education was necessary for women’s development, stating, “they would be more respectable members of society, and discharge the important duties of life by the light of their own reason” (80). The idea of education for enlightenment and empowerment resonated with many female writers of the time, who saw education as a way to break free from the constraints of society. As a result, we see many female characters in romantic and gothic literature, who are well-educated and free-thinking — attributes that were not wholly associated with women at the time. Wollstonecraft argued that women were not genuinely inferior to men, but rather their absence of education and opportunities held them back. This idea challenged the patriarchal notion of women as emotional and irrational individuals, thus paving the way for female writers to explore new themes and ideas in their work. In addition to promoting women’s education and intellect, Wollstonecraft also advocated for women’s rights and equality. She asserted that women possess the same ability for reason and integrity as men, thus, they should have the same rights and opportunities, including the right to vote and participate in government. She believed that allowing women to participate in politics and have a say in the laws and policies that govern their lives would lead to a more just and equal society. This radical idea inspired many female writers to contest the contemporary gender roles and expectations imposed on women by society. Furthermore, Wollstonecraft’s critique of marriage and the institution of the family also had a considerable influence on female writers of the past. In her book, she argued against the idea of marriage as a means for women to gain financial security, stating, “The great evil…is to render women more artificial, weaker slaves” (Wollstonecraft 104). This concept challenged the traditional societal views of marriage and encouraged female writers to explore alternative forms of relationships and unconventional family structures in their works. In her daughter’s infamous tale of “Frankenstein,” Mary Shelley positions the character of Elizabeth as defiant to societal expectations by repudiating marriage for financial gain and instead follows her own desires, eventually leading to her tragic fate. Mary Wollstonecraft’s “Vindication of the Rights of Women” had a monumental impact on female romantic and gothic writers of the 18th and 19th centuries. Her advocacy for women’s education, rationality, rights, and equality contested gender roles and expectations, while urging female writers to create strong, independent, and empowered female characters in their works. Wollstonecraft’s ideas continue to resonate with contemporary feminist readers and writers alike, resulting in her being a pioneer in the fight for women’s rights and equality.

Sarah Wilkinson’s novel “The Convent of St. Usurla” is a revolutionary work of feminist literature. As Hogle writes, “Romantics …‘radicalise’ their uses of the Gothic in a literal sense by insisting on this ‘root’ of the Gothic mode, this use of its Janus-faced elements to symbolise the cultural, as well as the personal, unconscious of unresolved conflicts felt by their authors and audiences” (113). Published in 1809, at a time when women’s rights and gender equality were not widely discussed, the novel highlights gender roles and explores the complexities of womanhood. As Anne Mellor writes in her book “Romanticism and Feminism”, “Literary women had been relegated for too long to the realm of sentiment; they were becoming far less interested in cultivating further refinements of sensibility than in demonstrating their claims to common sense” (21). Through the story of the protagonist, Magdalena, Wilkinson raises an evaluation of the unjust patriarchal society and advocates for women’s rights. At the onset, readers are thrown into a domestic violence situation. The Count is readying to murder Magdalena, “The count again raised his arm to strike the fatal blow; when a violent knocking suspending his purpose — he flung the dagger into a corner of the room, and stood as if hesitating, whether he should withdraw the bolt from the door” (Wilkinson 1). Wilkinson effectively translated the dark romantic/gothic themes of terror into situations of domestic horror. The novel also depicts the imbalanced power dynamics concerning men and women, signaling the female experiences of the time in which it was written. One of the most prominent themes in the story is the idea of women’s agency, or lack thereof. Magdalena, the main character, is a strong woman who although forced to conform to societal expectations still retains her intelligence and curiosity to things happening around her. Used and abused by the men in her life, she does not cower down. She still explores her surroundings to find the truth, regardless of what her husband and father have told her to do. This challenges the traditional gender roles of the time, where women were expected to be submissive and follow the orders of men, no questions asked. This sedition of traditional gender roles, while it may not resonate as bold to the modern reader, is a clear reflection of feminist ideas and emphasizes the importance of women’s autonomy and liberty when evaluated from a historical context. The novel also addresses the issue of women’s education and intellectual capabilities. Magdalena is a well read and intelligent woman. She is constantly seeking knowledge, even continuing to sneak into the library of her home when advised to do otherwise by her husband. This challenges the common belief at the time that women were not as intellectually capable as men. Through Magdalena’s character as well as the first Countess, the novel also critiques the societal expectation of women to prioritize marriage and motherhood. Wilkinson defies the idea that a woman’s worth is merely governed by her marital status and stresses the importance of women’s individuality. The novel also outlines the challenges women faced in balancing their desires for personal growth and societal pressure to adhere to gender norms. Another noteworthy characteristic of feminist themes in the novel is that of sisterhood and unity among women. Throughout the story, Magdalena accepts support and assistance from other female characters, such as her aunt the Lady Viola, Thomasine, and the first Countess. This emphasizes the significance of female bonds and the powerful force of women supporting and strengthening each other in a society controlled by men. In conclusion, Sarah Wilkinson’s “The Convent of St. Usurla” is a crucial work of feminist literature. Through the character of Magdalena and her experiences, the novel emphasizes the importance of women’s rights, while also focusing on the oppressive patriarchal society of the time. To the modern reader, it provides a reminder of the enduring battle for gender equality and the need for women’s voices to be heard as well as valued in all aspects of society.

Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley’s Frankenstein is a pivotal work of literature that explores the consequences of unchecked scientific ambition and the mistreatment of marginalized communities. As Mellor writes, “The romantic tradition did not simply objectify women. It also subjected them, in a dual sense, portraying woman as subject in order to appropriate the feminine for male subjectivity” (22). At its core, the novel delves into themes of power, gender, and societal expectations, making it a prime example of early feminist literature. Through the characters of Elizabeth, Justine, and the Creature, Shelley explores the constraints forced on women and the penalties of their suppression. Shelley disputes contemporary gender roles through the character of Elizabeth, Frankenstein’s adopted stepsister and paramour. Elizabeth is portrayed as the perfect woman of her time — beautiful, gentle, and submissive. However, as the novel progresses, it becomes clear that she has traits that are considered masculine in her time, such as intelligence, courage, and critical thinking. By overthrowing common gender roles, Shelley challenges societal expectations of women, proposing that they are capable of more than just executing domestic duties. Elizabeth’s character can also be seen as a symbol for the literary and philosophical ideals of Shelley’s mother, Mary Wollstonecraft herself. In the novel, Elizabeth embodies these ideals through her intelligence, empathy, and strong moral compass, showing how women can contribute to society beyond their perceived roles. Shelley explores the societal implications of the suppression of women’s voices through the character of Justine Moritz, the family’s servant who is falsely accused of murder and executed. Justine, like many women of her time, is denied a formal education and given limited opportunities, causing her to depend on the kindness of others for her livelihood. As a result, she is vulnerable and easily manipulated by those in power, ultimately leading to her tragic demise as a scapegoat. Shelley portrays the marginalization and oppression faced by women in a patriarchal society through her character. Justine’s unjust execution can also be viewed as a reflection of Wollstonecraft’s belief that women’s education and participation in society are crucial for their independence and empowerment. Shelley also addresses the dangers of objectifying women and reducing them to mere objects of desire. This is demonstrated through the character of the Creature, who is obsessed with creating a female companion for himself. The Creature’s desire for a female counterpart is motivated by his longing for companionship and acceptance. The objectification and commodification of women’s bodies have long been a feminist concern, and Shelley’s portrayal of the Creature’s attempt to have Victor create a female companion serves as a cautionary tale against reducing women to mere objects for male satisfaction. Shelley’s portrayal of the Creature’s misguided attempt to create a female companion serves as a powerful feminist message in an era where women were often seen as property and their autonomy was limited. Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley’s Frankenstein is a powerful commentary on feminism, challenging traditional gender roles and societal expectations of women, while also highlighting the consequences of suppressing women’s voices and objectifying their bodies. Through the characters of Elizabeth, Justine, and the Creature, Shelley displays the complexities of womanhood and the importance of equality and empowerment for women. This groundbreaking novel continues to be relevant today, reminding us of the ongoing fight for gender equality and the dangers of unchecked power and privilege.

In conclusion, the emergence of feminist prose within the dark romanticism genre was a pivotal moment in literary history. While these writers used their voices to evoke change, their words “gave them the opportunity to move outside of the conventional expectations of what was perceived as culturally appropriate for women and women writers” (Linkin 345). It not only questioned commonplace gender roles and disrupted patriarchal norms, but also provided a platform for women to express their voices and experiences. The presence of feminist themes in dark romantic works demonstrated the power of literature to incite social change and shed light on societal issues. As we continue to navigate through a world of ever-changing societal norms and expectations, it is important to recognize the impact that feminist prose within the dark romanticism genre has had on shaping our understanding of gender and equality. If Mary Wollstonecraft had not written “Vindication”, would the female writers that followed her, including her own daughter, been inspired to write the things they did? And while there is still much progress to be made in terms of gender equality, the existence of feminist literature within the dark romanticism genre serves as a reminder of the power of words and the importance of diversity and inclusivity in literature. The advances made by feminist prose within this genre will continue to inspire and empower readers to challenge the status quo and push for a more equal and just society for all. Society continues to celebrate and uplift the strong voices of women in literature and recognize the undeniable significance of their contributions in the world of dark romanticism.

Works Cited

Coleridge, Samuel Taylor. Christabel. Project Gutenberg, 1998. EBSCOhost

Collings, Tanya. “Frankenstein and Feminism: Contemplating The Memoirs of Elizabeth Frankenstein: FRANKENSTEIN AND FEMINISM.” Anthropology of Consciousness, vol. 22, no. 1, 2011, pp. 66 — 68, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1556-3537.2011.01040.x.

Fay, Elizabeth. “Romanticism and Feminism.” A Companion to Romanticism, Blackwell Publishing Ltd, 2017, pp. 429 — 33, https://doi.org/10.1002/9781405165396.ch39.

Grossberg, Benjamin Scott. “Making Christabel: Sexual Transgression and Its Implications in Coleridge’s ‘Christabel.’” Journal of Homosexuality, vol. 41, no. 2, 2001, pp. 145 — 65, https://doi.org/10.1300/J082v41n02_08.

Hogle, Jerrold E. “Gothic and Second-Generation Romanticism: Lord Byron, P. B. Shelley, John Polidori and Mary Shelley.” In Romantic Gothic: An Edinburgh Companion, edited by Angela Wright and Dale Townshend, 112 — 128. Edinburgh University Press, 2016.

Linkin, Harriet Kramer. “Fracture Feminism: The Politics of Impossible Time in British Romanticism by David Sigler (review).” Tulsa Studies in Women’s Literature, vol. 41, no. 2, 2022, pp. 345 — 48, https://doi.org/10.1353/tsw.2022.0025.

Mellor, Anne K. Romanticism and Feminism. Indiana University Press, 1988. EBSCOhost, search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&AuthType=sso&db=nlebk&AN=606&site =ehost-live.

Shelley, Mary Wollstonecraft. “Frankenstein;” The Project Gutenberg eBook of Frankenstein, by Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley, 2023, www.gutenberg.org/files/84/84-h/84-h.htm.

Wilkinson, Sarah. “The Convent of Saint Usurla.” PROJECT GOTHIC, 2023, gothic.lib.virginia.edu/project-gothic__trashed/access-the-archive/the-convent-of-saint-usurla/.

Wollstonecraft, Mary. A Vindication of the Rights of Woman. United Kingdom, Walter Scott, 1891.